Elizabeth Barrett Browning - "Sonnets from the Portuguese" and "Aurora Leigh"

 

Elizabeth Barret Browing

I. Introduction:

Elizabeth Barrett Browning (EBB), a important figure of the Victorian era (1837–1901), revolutionized poetry through feminist discourse, social protest, and lyrical innovation. Challenging gender constraints and chronic illness, she introduced the dramatic monologue form and elevated the sonnet sequence to new heights. This newsletter investigates her life, oeuvre, and enduring legacy, with detailed explanations of literary terms.

 

II. Biographical Sketch: Triumph Amid Adversity

Key Events & Influence-

1. Early Life & Tragedy:

·    Born 6 March 1806, Coxhoe Hall, Durham; eldest of 12 in a wealthy Jamaican sugar-plantation family.

• Spinal injury (age 15) and lung disease led to lifelong morphine dependence.

     2.    Intellectual Ferment:

• Self-taught in Greek, Latin, Hebrew; read Milton, Dante, and Wollstonecraft by adolescence.
• Published An Essay on Mind (1826) anonymously at 20.

3. Traumatic Losses:

• Mother’s death (1828); brother "Bro" drowned (1840), inspiring grief-laden De Profundis.

4. Transformation in Italy:

• Eloped with Robert Browning (1846); disinherited. Flourished in Florence, bearing son "Pen" (1849).

Literary Catalysts

Work	Significance
Sonnets from the Portuguese (1850)	44 love sonnets for Robert; redefined Petrarchan tradition
Aurora Leigh (1857)	11,000-line verse novel; feminist manifesto
Poems Before Congress (1860)	Political protest against Italian oppression

 

III. Literary Output & Style

A. Defining Characteristics

1. Formal Innovation:
• Hybridized sonnet structures: Mixed abba abba octaves with cdcdcd/cdecde sestets.
• Blank verse mastery: Aurora Leigh used unrhymed iambic pentameter for autobiographical realism.
2. Thematic Boldness:
• Feminist polemic: Challenged Victorian separate spheres ideology (domestic vs. public life).
• Social justice: Condemned child labor (The Cry of the Children), slavery, and oppression.
3. Voice & Tone:
• Lyrical intensity fused with moral urgency.
• Blended Romantic subjectivity with Victorian social critique.

B. Major Works Analyzed

1. Sonnets from the Portuguese (1850)
• Structure: 44 Petrarchan sonnets (14-line poems: octave + sestet).
• Innovation: Reversed gender roles; female speaker articulates desire.

"How do I love thee? Let me count the ways." (Sonnet 43)

• Legacy: Became template for female-authored love poetry.
1. Aurora Leigh (1857)
• Genre: Verse novel blending epic, bildungsroman, and social realism.
• Feminist Themes:

ü  Denied marriage as sole female destiny.

ü  Affirmed women’s right to artistic vocation.

• Critical Impact:

ü  Hailed by Woolf as "the epic poem of the literary woman herself."

3. George Sand Tributes
• To George Sand: A Recognition & To George Sand: A Desire (1844):

ü Form: Italian sonnets honoring French novelist Amantine Dupin (1804–1876).

ü  Thesis: Praised Sand’s genius while affirming female identity:

"True genius, but true woman! dost deny / Thy woman’s nature with a manly scorn?"

ü  Gender Subversion: "Large-brained woman and large-hearted man" dismantled biological essentialism.

4. The Cry of the Children (1843)
• Inspiration: 1842 parliamentary report on child labor.
• Techniques:

ü Didacticism: Moral instruction through visceral imagery.

ü  Anaphora: Repetition of "Do ye hear the children weeping?" for rhetorical force.

• Impact: Encouraged factory reforms; hailed as pioneering protest poetry.

IV. Critical Reception & Controversies

Contemporary Views

1. Praise:

•  John Ruskin: "The greatest female genius since Sappho."
• Pre-Raphaelites respected her spiritual intensity.

    2. Censure:

• Criticized for "obscurity" and "coarseness" (Poems Before Congress).
• Edward Fitzgerald: "Her sex had better mind the kitchen."

Modern Reappraisal

1. Feminist Icon:
• Aurora Leigh reclaimed as foundational text for proto-feminism.
• Gilbert & Gubar (The Madwoman in the Attic) cite Bertha Mason parallels.
2. Political Visionary:
• Recognized for anti-imperialist stance in Casa Guidi Windows (1851).

V. Literary Glossary

1. Petrarchan Sonnet:

· Structure: 14 lines; octave (ABBA ABBA) + sestet (CDE CDE/CDCDCD).

·   EBB’s Use: Subverted male gaze in Sonnets from the Portuguese.

2. Verse Novel:

· Definition: Book-length narrative told through poetry.

·   Example: Aurora Leigh’s blend of social critique and autobiography.

3. Didacticism:

· Purpose: Literature aiming to instruct morally/politically.

·  EBB’s Use: The Cry of the Children exposed industrial exploitation.

4. Blank Verse:

·   Structure: Unrhymed iambic pentameter.

· Effect: Mimics natural speech; used in Aurora Leigh for realism.

5. Separate Spheres Ideology:

· Victorian Doctrine: Men (public/work); women (private/home).

·  EBB’s Challenge: "Am I proved too weak / To stand alone?" (Aurora Leigh).

6. Proto-Feminism:

·  Definition: Pre-20th-century advocacy for women’s rights.

·  EBB’s Role: Demanded intellectual equality and creative agency.

VI. Enduring Legacy

1. Literary Influence:

·   Encouraged Emily Dickinson (kept EBB’s portrait in her bedroom).

·  Paved way for Modernist feminists (Virginia Woolf, Adrienne Rich).

2. Cultural Impact:

·  "How Do I Love Thee?" remains a global wedding staple.

·  Aurora Leigh taught in gender studies curricula worldwide.

3. Posthumous Recognition:

· 1850: Contender for Poet Laureate after Wordsworth.

· 2020s: Reclaimed as intersectional icon (class, gender, disability).

 

"She sought 'a stainless fame'—and forged a legacy that outshone Victorian constraint."

Thomas Gray -“An Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” (1751)

Thomas Gray's "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" (1751) 

– A Pre-Romantic Masterpiece

Introduction:

Between Neoclassicism and Romanticism

Thomas Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (1751) is a landmark poem of the 18th-century Pre-Romantic era. It bridges the rationalism of Neoclassicism and the emotional depth of Romanticism, meditating on universal themes of death, equality, and unfulfilled potential. This newsletter unpacks Gray’s life, the poem’s structure, literary innovations, and enduring legacy, with detailed explanations of key terms.

Literary Background

The Pre-Romantic Age (c. 1760–1798)

1. Definition: A transitional period rejecting Neoclassical rigidity. Writers embraced emotion, nature, melancholy, and individualism.
2. Key Movements:

Ø  Graveyard School: Poetry focused on death, mortality, and somber settings (e.g., churchyards).

Ø Cult of Sensibility: Emphasis on emotional responsiveness and empathy.

Ø  Primitivism: Idealization of rural life and "noble savages" (influenced by Rousseau).

3. Gray’s Context: Gray’s Elegy epitomizes this shift—melancholic yet morally urgent, blending formal diction with emotional depth.

Graveyard School

1. Origin: Inspired by Robert Blair’s The Grave (1743) and Edward Young’s Night Thoughts (1742–45).
2. Themes: Physical decay, human transience, and moral lessons from gravesites.
3. Gray’s Contribution: Transformed morbidity into philosophical reflection on social equality.

Thomas Gray – Life and Works

Biographical Key Points

1. Birth: December 26, 1716, London; sole survivor of 12 children.
2. Education: Eton and Cambridge; avoided sports, preferred classics and poetry.
3. Tragedy: Friend Richard West’s death (1742) inspired early elegies.
4. Fame: Elegy (1751) brought celebrity; later Pindaric odes (The Bard, Progress of Poesy) criticized for obscurity.
5. Death: Buried at Stoke Poges (1771), the churchyard setting of his Elegy.

Major Works

Poem	Theme	Form
Sonnet on the Death of Richard West	Grief and loss	Sonnet
Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College	Nostalgia for youth	Ode
The Bard	Welsh nationalism	Pindaric Ode
Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard	Mortality and social justice	Heroic Quatrains

 

Explanation of "The Elegy"

Structure: 128 lines in heroic quatrains (iambic pentameter, ABAB rhyme).

Key Sections

1. Setting (Stanzas 1–8):

Ø  Imagery: Sunset ("curfew"), withdrawing laborers, owl’s "moping cry."

Ø  Tone: Melancholy solitude; churchyard as symbol of oblivion.

2. Reflection on the Dead (Stanzas 9–23):

Ø  Personification: "Ambition" and "Grandeur" warned not to mock the humble dead.

Ø  Theme: Death as the Great Leveler—rich and poor share the same fate.

Ø  Social Critique:

"Full many a flow’r is born to blush unseen, / And waste its sweetness on the desert air."

§  The poor’s talents (potential "Miltons" or "Cromwells") crushed by lack of opportunity.

3. Epitaph (Stanzas 24–32):

Ø  Gray imagines his own grave:

"A youth to Fortune and to Fame unknown... / He gave to Mis’ry all he had, a tear."

Ø  Self-Portrayal: An isolated, sensitive observer—proto-Romantic figure.

Critical Appreciation

Themes

1. Mortality: Death’s inevitability unites all humanity.
2. Social Justice: Condemns class barriers denying the poor recognition.
3. Memory: Humble memorials vs. vain "storied urns."

Literary Innovations

1. Transition to Romanticism:

Ø  Focus on solitary speaker in nature.

Ø  Emotion over Neoclassical decorum.

2. Democratic Ethos:

"The paths of glory lead but to the grave."

Ø  Elevates "rude forefathers" as morally equal to elites.

Controversies

1. Epitaph Debate:

Ø  Critic D.C. Tovey: "Weak afterthought."

Ø  Cleanth Brooks: "Harmonious conclusion to a rich context."

2. Truisms: Some critics dismissed lines as clichés; others praised their universal resonance.

Literary & Technical Terms Glossary

1.       Pre-Romanticism

Ø  Definition: Late 18th-century movement blending Neoclassical form with emotional, nature-focused themes.

Ø  Gray’s Role: Used formal structure (heroic quatrains) to explore feeling and individualism.

2. Graveyard School

Ø  Definition: Poetic group fixated on death, decay, and moral lessons from cemeteries.

Ø  Key Texts: Blair’s The Grave, Young’s Night Thoughts, Gray’s Elegy.

3. Heroic Quatrains

Ø  Structure: Four-line stanzas in iambic pentameter (da-DUM x5), ABAB rhyme.

Ø  Effect: Creates solemn, meditative rhythm suited to elegiac tone.

4. Personification

Ø  Example: "Ambition" and "Grandeur" as scornful aristocrats.

Ø  Purpose: Critiques social inequality through abstract concepts.

5. Pindaric Ode

Ø  Origin: Greek poet Pindar; irregular stanzas, lofty themes.

Ø  Gray’s Use: The Bard and Progress of Poesy—experimental but criticized as obscure.

6. Cult of Sensibility

Ø  Definition: 18th-century emphasis on emotional vulnerability and moral empathy.

Ø  In the Elegy: Tears for the poor, focus on "unhonoured" lives.

7. Democratizing Note

Ø  Manifestation: Asserts that peasant graves hold equal moral weight to nobles’ tombs.

Ø  Historical Impact: Inspired Wordsworth’s focus on rural lives (Michael).

Legacy and Quotations

Enduring Influence

1. Phrases Entering English:

Ø  "Far from the madding crowd"

Ø  "Paths of glory"

Ø  "Kindred spirit"

2. Literary Heirs:

Ø  Wordsworth’s Lyrical Ballads (rural subjects).

Ø  Keats’ meditations on mortality.

Critical Praise

• Samuel Johnson:

"[The Elegy] abounds with images which find a mirror in every mind."

• Herbert W. Starr:

"No poem of the same length contributed so many phrases to our language."

Points to Ponder

1. Self-Pity in the Epitaph: Does Gray’s self-portrait as a "lonely poet" enhance or weaken the poem’s universal message?
2. Social Critique: How does the Elegy challenge 18th-century class barriers?
3. Audience: Does commemorating the "unknown" require a privileged poet’s voice?

Conclusion: Why Gray Matters

Gray’s Elegy revolutionized poetry by:

1. Elevating humble lives as worthy of elegiac tribute.
2. Bridging Neoclassical form with Romantic emotion.
3. Democratizing themes of mortality and memory.
   Its blend of moral urgency, lyrical beauty, and social conscience remains unmatched. As Gray wrote:

"The paths of glory lead but to the grave."
In death, all find equality—a message that resonates across centuries.

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