Sir Philip Sidney - "An Apology for Poetry"

 

Introduction

Sir Philip Sidney (1554–1586) remains a cornerstone of Renaissance literary theory. His An Apology for Poetry (1595) is a seminal defense of literature against Puritan attacks, repositioning poetry as a vehicle for moral and intellectual enlightenment. This newsletter unpacks Sidney’s arguments, biography, and legacy, with detailed explanations of technical terms to aid scholarly comprehension.

Biography

Sidney’s life epitomized the Renaissance ideal of the "courtier-poet":

• Born: November 30, 1554, in Penshurst, England, to a noble family.
• Education: Studied at Shrewsbury School and Christ Church, Oxford. Traveled Europe (1572–1575), mastering languages (Latin, French, Italian) and absorbing humanist thought.
• Political Career: Served as courtier, diplomat, and Governor of Flushing (1585). Knighted in 1583.
• Literary Circle: Associated with Edmund Spenser and Fulke Greville. Penned Astrophel and Stella (sonnets), Arcadia (prose romance), and The Lady of May (pastoral play).
• Death: Died at 31 from battle wounds at Zutphen (1586), buried at St. Paul’s Cathedral.

Key Term: Renaissance Humanism

A cultural movement reviving classical learning, emphasizing rhetoric, ethics, and the potential of human intellect. Sidney’s European travels immersed him in this tradition.

Major Works

Sidney’s influential texts, published posthumously:

1. Arcadia (1590): A prose romance blending pastoral idealism with political drama.
2. Astrophel and Stella (1591): A sonnet sequence inspired by Penelope Devereux ("Stella").
3. An Apology for Poetry (1595): A rebuttal to Stephen Gosson’s School of Abuse (1579), which condemned poetry as immoral.

Textual Analysis

An Apology adopts a classical oration structure:

1. Exordium: Introduction using humor (anecdote about horsemanship) to engage readers.
2. Narration: States poetry’s purpose—to "teach and delight."
3. Propositio: Thesis classifying poets into three types (see below).
4. Confirmatio: Evidence proving poetry’s superiority over history/philosophy.
5. Refutatio: Counters anti-poetry arguments (e.g., "poetry is lies").
6. Digressio: Critiques contemporary English poetry’s decline.
7. Peroratio: Concludes with a curse on poetry’s detractors.

Key Term: Classical Oration

A rhetorical framework from ancient Greece/Rome, dividing arguments into sections for logical persuasion. Sidney mirrors Cicero’s style.

The Poet and Poetry

Sidney synthesizes Plato and Aristotle to redefine poetry:

• Mimesis (Imitation):

1. Aristotle: Art mimics nature.
2. Sidney: Poetry is "a speaking picture" that improves nature by creating an ideal "golden world."

• Fore-Conceit:

1. The poet’s mental blueprint of an ideal form (e.g., justice) before crafting it into art.

• Divine Creativity:

1. Poets emulate God by generating "another nature," bridging reality and idealism.

Key Term: Mimesis

Greek for "imitation." Sidney expands it beyond copying reality to envisioning moral ideals (e.g., a perfect ruler).

Poetry vs. History and Philosophy

Sidney’s hierarchy of knowledge:

Discipline Limitations Poetry’s Superiority History Trapped in facts; cannot generalize. Combines examples (history) with precepts (philosophy).

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Philosophy Abstract; fails to inspire action. "Shows" virtue through characters (e.g., Cyrus in Xenophon’s Cyropaedia).

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Key Term: Gnosis vs. Praxis

Gnosis: Theoretical knowledge. Praxis: Actionable wisdom. Poetry turns gnosis into praxis by motivating virtue.

Kinds of Poetry

Sidney categorizes "right poets" by genre, ranked ethically:

1. Epic/Heroic Poetry (Highest form):

• Presents magnanimity through heroic figures (Achilles, Aeneas).
• Example: Virgil’s Aeneid teaches duty to Rome.

2. Pastoral:

• Uses rural settings to critique tyranny.
• Example: Virgil’s Eclogues contrast fortune and misfortune.

3. Elegiac:

• Evokes pity for human suffering.
• Example: Heraclitus’ laments.

4. Iambic:

• Attacks vice directly (e.g., political corruption).

5. Satire:

• Ridicules folly (e.g., greed).

6. Comedy:

• Laughs at "common errors" (e.g., flattery) to provoke self-correction.

7. Tragedy:

• Exposes moral ambiguity; stirs "admiration and commiseration."
• Example: Euripides’ Troades moved tyrant Alexander Pheraeus to tears.

8. Lyric:

• Praises virtue and nationalism.
• Example: Ballad Chevy Chase inspires courage.

Key Term: Catharsis

Aristotle’s theory that tragedy purges emotions (pity/fear). Sidney stresses tragedy’s power to warn rulers.

Decline of Poetry in Sidney’s Age

Sidney laments England’s poetic decay, blaming:

1. Lack of inspiration.
2. Ignorance of classical models.
3. Neglect of practice ("Poets are made, not born").
4. Violations of Dramatic Unities:

• Time: Plot ≤ 24 hours.
• Place: Single location.
• Action: No subplots.
• Example: Criticizes Gorboduc for ignoring unities.

Ethical Effects of Poetry

Poetry uniquely:

1. Purifies wit (sharpens intellect).
2. Enriches memory (stores moral exemplars).
3. Enables judgment (applies ideals to real life).
4. Enlarges conceit (expands imaginative capacity).

Sidney as Classicist and Romanticist

• Classicist:

Quotes Aristotle, Cicero; demands adherence to unities/meter.

• Romanticist:

Hails poets as "divinely inspired" creators of ideal worlds.

Key Term: Neo-Classicism

A later movement (17th–18th c.) codifying Sidney’s ideas (e.g., Boileau’s Art of Poetry).

Influence and Originality

• Pioneered English criticism: First systematic defense of poetry.
• Legacy: Shaped Dryden, Johnson, Romantics (Wordsworth/Coleridge).
• Innovation: Merged theory with practical analysis of contemporary works.

Conclusion

Sidney ends An Apology as he began—with wit, blessing poetry’s advocates and cursing detractors: Those who scorn verse "never get favor" and die without epitaphs. His fusion of idealism and pragmatism cemented poetry’s role as civilization’s moral compass.

"Poetry is an art of imitation [...] with this end, to teach and delight." — Sidney, An Apology for Poetry

Aristotle's Poetics- Literary Criticism

The Natyashastra 

Aristotle's Poetics: The Foundational Treatise on Literary Art

Introduction:

Aristotle (384-322 BCE), the Macedonian philosopher and student of Plato, changed Western thought with his practical approach to knowledge. His Poetics (c. 335 BCE), though partially lost, remains the iconic work of literary theory. Composed as lecture notes, it systematically analyzes poetry (Greek poiētikē, "making" or "creating"), focusing mainly on tragedy and epic poetry. Aristotle counters Plato’s dismissal of art as morally corrupting by arguing poetry reveals universal truths through structured imitation (mimesis), offering intellectual pleasure and emotional catharsis. This newsletter unpacks Aristotle’s technical framework, defining key concepts crucial for understanding narrative art.

I. The Core Principle: Mimesis (Imitation)
Aristotle defines all poetry as fundamentally mimetic – not mere copying, but a creative representation of human experience.

• Mimesis :

Explanation: The artistic representation/re-creation of human actions, characters, emotions, or objects. It utilizes rhythm, language, and harmony. Unlike Plato (who saw art as a deceptive copy of copies), Aristotle viewed mimesis as natural, educational, and pleasurable. Humans learn through imitation; art purifies this instinct into meaningful patterns revealing universal truths (katholou).

Example: A tragedy imitates "noble" actions; comedy imitates "base" actions.

• Three Modes of Mimesis:
1. Medium (How): The tools used (language, rhythm, melody, spectacle).
2. Object (What): The subjects represented (people in action – better, worse, or like ourselves).
3. Manner (How Presented): Narrative form (first-person, third-person, or dramatic enactment).

II. Poetry: Definition, Origins, and Types
Poetry emerges from innate human instincts and is classified by its mimetic object and manner.

• Definition: "A medium of imitation" using rhythm, language, and harmony (separately or combined) to represent life through character, emotion, or action.
• Origins: Two innate human instincts drive poetry:
1. Instinct for Imitation (Mimesis): Learning and understanding through representation.
2. Instinct for Harmony and Rhythm: Natural pleasure in patterned sound and movement.
• Major Types (Based on Mimetic Object):

1. Tragedy: Imitates "men better than they are" acting serious, complete actions of magnitude, evoking pity and fear leading to catharsis (see Section III).
2. Epic Poetry: Imitates noble actions (like tragedy) but uses narrative form and a single meter (hexameter). Deals with great themes over long time (e.g., Homer’s Iliad).
3. Comedy: Imitates "men worse than they are," focusing on the ridiculous or ugly (but not painful or destructive), provoking laughter. (Note: Aristotle’s full analysis of comedy is lost from the Poetics).
4. Dithyrambic Poetry: Lyric poetry sung in chorus, often honoring Dionysus, using music and rhythm intensely.

III. The Anatomy of Tragedy

Tragedy is the highest form of poetry for Aristotle, analyzed through six qualitative parts.

• Definition: "An imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament...; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation [catharsis] of these emotions."
• Six Essential Parts (Constitutive Elements):
1. Plot : "The soul of tragedy." The arrangement of events – the causal sequence of events. Must be:
• Complete: Has beginning, middle, end.
• Of Magnitude: Sufficiently significant and complex.
• Unified: Focused on a single, central action (not necessarily adhering to the later "Three Unities" of time/place/action, though unity of action is crucial).
• Complex: Involves Peripeteia (Reversal of Fortune)

       and Anagnorisis (Recognition/Discovery).

• Peripeteia: A pivotal reversal of the protagonist's situation or intentions (e.g., Oedipus discovering he killed his father).
• Anagnorisis: A critical change from ignorance to knowledge, often triggering the peripeteia (e.g., Oedipus recognizing his true identity).
1. Character : The moral agents whose choices drive the plot. Must be:
• Good : Morally sound (relative to their station).
• Appropriate: Suited to their status/role (e.g., a warrior should be brave).
• Lifelike: Consistent and believable.
• Consistent: Behavior remains coherent unless change is motivated.
2. Thought: The intellectual element – what characters argue, prove, or express. Reflects reasoning and themes.
3. Diction : The expressive use of language – word choice, metaphor, style.
4. Song/Melody: The musical/lyrical component, especially the Chorus.
5. Spectacle: The visual elements (scenery, costumes, acting). Important but least artistic, relying on craft more than poetry itself.
• Tragic Hero: Typically a person of good reputation who suffers a downfall (peripeteia) due to a Hamartia.

• Hamartia: Often translated as "tragic flaw," but more accurately a "mistake," "error in judgment," or "missing the mark." It's an action undertaken in ignorance or stemming from character weakness, leading to unintended catastrophic consequences. It is not simple villainy.

• Catharsis :

Explanation: The purgation, purification, or clarification of the emotions of pity and fear experienced by the audience. Witnessing the hero's suffering releases these emotions in a controlled, safe environment, leaving viewers emotionally balanced and intellectually enlightened about human vulnerability and fate. The exact mechanism remains debated.

IV. Epic Poetry: Comparison with Tragedy
Epic shares tragedy's nobility but differs fundamentally in form and effect.

• Similarities:

Ø  Imitates noble characters/actions.

Ø  Requires a unified, complex plot (can use peripeteia & anagnorisis).

Ø  Contains the same parts (plot, character, thought, diction; spectacle and song less prominent).

• Key Differences:

• Aristotle's Conclusion: Tragedy is superior to Epic. While both provide pleasure in reading, Tragedy's enacted form, incorporating music and spectacle, achieves a more concentrated and powerful cathartic effect within a unified timeframe.

V. Comedy: The Fragmentary View
(Based on surviving hints in Poetics and later interpretations)

1. Definition: "An imitation of characters of a lower type... the Ludicrous being merely a subdivision of the ugly. It consists in some defect or ugliness which is not painful or destructive."
2. Object of Imitation: "Men worse than they are," focusing on the ridiculous (to geloion), involving errors or deformities that provoke laughter without causing pain.
3. Effect: Provides pleasure through amusement and the safe release of laughter at human foibles. The spectator feels superior or relieved it's not them.
4. Structure: Aristotle notes its late development compared to tragedy. He mentions Crates of Athens as an early innovator who moved beyond personal lampoon (iambic form) to generalized plots and characters.

VI. Poetic Craft: Rules and Errors
Aristotle evaluates poetry based on its mimetic purpose and execution.

• The Goal of Imitation: The poet can aim to represent:
1. Things as they are.
2. Things as they are thought to be (or said to be).
3. Things as they ought to be (idealized).
• Errors in Poetry:

Ø  Essential Errors: Flaws concerning the core act of mimesis itself (e.g., irrational behavior inconsistent with character, implausible plot twists not caused by hamartia). These damage the work's credibility and purpose.

Ø  Accidental/Peripheral Errors: Factual inaccuracies about history, science, or minor inconsistencies not affecting the plot's core logic or character consistency. Aristotle considers these less critical: "For the purposes of poetry a convincing impossibility is preferable to an unconvincing possibility."

• Judging Art: Art should be judged aesthetically based on its success in achieving its mimetic purpose (representing life as it is, as thought, or as ought to be) and eliciting the appropriate emotional/intellectual response, not solely on scientific or historical accuracy.

Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy of the Poetics

Aristotle’s Poetics established the foundational vocabulary and critical framework for analyzing Western literature and drama. His concepts -mimesis, catharsis, hamartia, peripeteia, anagnorisis, the primacy of plot, and the elements of tragedy – remain indispensable tools for critics, writers, and scholars. By shifting the focus from Plato’s moral condemnation to an analysis of art’s structure, function, and psychological impact, Aristotle validated literature as a serious and beneficial pursuit capable of revealing profound truths about the human condition. Despite its fragmentary state and the loss of the comedy section, the Poetics continues to provoke debate, inspire creation, and offer timeless insights into the art of storytelling. Its empirical approach to understanding how and why poetry works ensures its place as the cornerstone of literary theory.

Glossary of Key Aristotelian Terms

ü  Anagnorisis:  Recognition or discovery; a critical change from ignorance to knowledge, often triggering the peripeteia.

ü  Catharsis:  Purgation, purification, or clarification; the effect of tragedy on the audience, releasing the emotions of pity and fear.

ü  Dianoia: Thought; the intellectual element expressed through argument or thematic content in a play/poem.

ü  Ēthos : Character; the moral qualities and motivations of the agents in a drama or poem.

ü  Hamartia: Error in judgment, mistake, or flaw; the action (often undertaken in ignorance) that leads to the tragic hero's downfall.

ü  Lexis:  Diction; the expressive use of language, including word choice, style, and metaphor.

ü  Melos:  Song or melody; the musical element of tragedy, primarily associated with the Chorus.

ü  Mimesis:  Imitation or representation; the fundamental principle that all art imitates human life and action.

ü  Mythos:  Plot; the arrangement of incidents, the causal sequence of events; "the soul of tragedy."

ü  Opsis : Spectacle; the visual elements of a tragedy (scenery, costumes, acting).

ü  Peripeteia: Reversal of fortune; a pivotal change in the protagonist's situation, often the opposite of their intention.

ü  Poiesis: Making or creating; the root of "poetry," encompassing the art of literary creation.

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