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| ‘Non-British’ Literatures in English Canada and Australia - A Newsletter Study Guide |
Reimagining English Literatures: Canada, Australia, and the Rise of Non-British Narratives
In this newsletter, we explore how English literature was reborn in the colonies of Canada and Australia. We will journey through the arrival of British settlers, the silencing of indigenous voices, and eventually, the powerful emergence of Aboriginal literature and Indigenous Canadian literature. This is not just a history lesson. It is an invitation to rethink what “English literature” means in the twenty-first century.
By the end of this guide, you will understand key terms such as Postcolonial Literature, Commonwealth Literature, Fourth World Literature, and New Literature in English. You will also learn how Comparative Literature and World Literature have made space for voices that were once ignored. Let us begin.
The Birth of Non-British English Literature
What Does “Non-British” Mean?
When we speak of Non-British English Literature, we refer to all literary works written in English (or translated into English) that originate from former colonies of the British Empire.
Why is this distinction important? Because for centuries, the study of English literature meant the study of writers from England – Shakespeare, Milton, Dickens, Austen. The idea that someone in Sydney or Toronto could write “English literature” was once considered inferior or derivative. But today, Non-British English Literature is a thriving, respected field of study. It appears in university syllabi around the world, and it has produced Nobel laureates, Booker Prize winners, and globally celebrated poets.
How Did It Begin?
The emergence of English literature in Australia and English literature in Canada is directly linked to British colonization. When British ships arrived on the shores of these lands, they brought not only soldiers and administrators but also the English language, European literary forms (the novel, the sonnet, the essay), and a belief in their own cultural superiority.
However, the story is not one-sided. The module emphasizes that the civilising mission of the British also created a new awareness among indigenous peoples. Learning English gave them access to global ideas of freedom, justice, and resistance. It also gave them a tool – the English language – which they would eventually use to write back against their oppressors. This is the great paradox of colonial literature: the colonizer’s language becomes the medium of rebellion.
Three Types of Literary Contribution
The module identifies three distinct layers of literary production in the colonies:
Literature written by Europeans – This includes early documentation of indigenous languages, grammar books, dictionaries, and translations of oral stories. While often biased, these works preserved fragments of indigenous culture that might have otherwise been lost.
Literature written about indigenous people by European descendants – These are novels, poems, and travelogues written by settlers who looked at native peoples from the outside. Some were sympathetic; many were racist. Either way, they did not represent the authentic voice of the community.
Literature written by indigenous people themselves – This is the most powerful, revolutionary, and authentic layer. When an Aboriginal Australian or First Nations Canadian writes a poem or a novel in English, they are reclaiming their history, their trauma, and their future. This third layer is the true subject of Postcolonial Literature.
The Vocabulary of Resistance – Key Terms Explained
To study Non-British English Literature, you must master a set of key terms. Each term carries its own history, politics, and limitations. Let us define them one by one.
Commonwealth Literature
This is the oldest term. It refers to literature written in English from countries that are members of the British Commonwealth (formerly the British Empire). However, as Salman Rushdie famously declared, “Commonwealth Literature Does Not Exist.” Rushdie argued that the term is a strange beast: its members deny belonging to it, yet the label sticks. It is a term created by the British for their own convenience – a way to keep former colonies within a cultural orbit. Today, many scholars avoid Commonwealth Literature precisely because it suggests a common interest with Britain, rather than the distinct, often oppositional, identities of each nation.
Postcolonial Literature
This term is more widely accepted. Postcolonial Literature includes writing from countries that were colonized by European powers, and it focuses on themes such as identity, hybridity, resistance, and the legacy of colonialism. However, the module points out that Postcolonial Literature is also debated. Scholars like Elleke Boehmer note that even Britain itself has been colonized (by the Romans), so technically all English literature could be called postcolonial. Ania Loomba calls the term “vague,” and Christine MacLeod says there is “no definitive consensus” on what postcoloniality means.
Moreover, many indigenous writers reject the prefix “post-” because it implies that colonialism is over. For the Aboriginal people of Australia and the First Nations of Canada, colonialism is an ongoing reality. They prefer terms like Fourth World Literature or simply Indigenous Literature.
New Literature in English
This is a more neutral, descriptive term. New Literature in English includes writing from Asia, Africa, the Caribbean, Canada, Australia, and the Pacific. It is “new” not in the sense of being recent, but in the sense of being non-British in its cultural roots. The study of New Literature often uses a comparative methodology – comparing how different colonies responded to similar colonial pressures.
World Literature
The term World Literature is older and more inclusive. It is not a universal category; rather, it changes depending on where you study it. A university in New York will teach a different World Literature syllabus than a university in Delhi or Sydney. The module gives the example of NYU Sydney, where the World Literature course asks questions like: How have colonialism, diaspora, and migration shaped the Asia-Pacific region? What is the place of race and indigeneity in nationalism? How do Australian and New Zealand writers address these issues?
In this sense, World Literature is a flexible, dynamic field. It allows new canons to emerge and old canons to be challenged.
Fourth World Literature
This is perhaps the most specific and politically charged term. Fourth World Literature refers exclusively to the written work of native people living in lands that have been taken over by non-natives. The term “Fourth World” came into use after the formation of the World Council of Indigenous Peoples (WCIP) in 1972. Fourth World peoples are the original inhabitants – those who existed before European colonizers invaded, occupied, and settled their homelands.
Indigenous Australian Literature – A Deeper Look
The Historical Context
The Aboriginal people of Australia have lived on the continent for over 60,000 years. They had complex oral traditions, rich mythologies (the Dreamtime), and deep spiritual connections to the land. When the British arrived in 1788, they declared Australia terra nullius – “land belonging to no one.” This legal fiction justified the dispossession of indigenous people, the destruction of their cultures, and the forced removal of children (the Stolen Generations).
For a long time, Aboriginal Australian literature did not exist in written form – because writing was a European technology. Oral stories were dismissed as folklore, not literature. It was only in the twentieth century, as education expanded and indigenous rights movements grew, that Aboriginal writers began to publish in English.
Key Writers and Themes
The module names several important Aboriginal Australian authors:
Oodgeroo Noonuccal (formerly Kath Walker) – The first Aboriginal woman to publish a book of poetry. Her work combines political protest with a celebration of indigenous culture.
Jack Davis – A playwright and poet who wrote about the clash between Aboriginal and white Australian worlds.
Mudrooroo – A novelist and critic who explored identity, colonialism, and the search for belonging.
Sally Morgan – Author of My Place, a groundbreaking autobiography that traces her family’s hidden Aboriginal heritage.
Kim Scott – Winner of the Miles Franklin Award for Benang and That Deadman Dance.
Alexis Wright – Author of Carpentaria, a epic novel that blends realism, myth, and political satire.
What makes Aboriginal Australian literature unique? According to Teresa Podemska-Abt, it offers a “completely different world view” from mainstream English literature. The characters are full of spirit; they struggle against stereotypes; they present an authentic picture of indigenous life. The language may be English, but the soul is Aboriginal.
Resistance and Solidarity
One of the most striking features of Aboriginal Australian literature is its message of resistance. Every poem, every novel, every memoir carries a reminder of the violence of colonization. But there is also solidarity. The module argues that because indigenous peoples around the world share a similar history of oppression, their literatures speak to each other. A Maori writer in New Zealand can read an Aboriginal Australian novel and recognize her own struggle. This is why Comparative Literature is so valuable: it allows us to see connections across continents.
Indigenous Canadian Literature – Voices from the North
A Dual Colonial Legacy
Canadian literature in English is different from Australian literature in one important way: Canada was colonized by both the British and the French. This dual legacy creates a unique cultural tension. However, for Indigenous Canadian literature, the colonizer is largely the same: European settlers who arrived, took land, and tried to erase native cultures.
The Oral Roots
Like their Australian counterparts, Indigenous Canadian literature has deep roots in oral tradition. Myths, legends, and folktales were passed down through generations. The module highlights several major indigenous groups and their literary traditions:
Mi’kmaq literature – From the Atlantic provinces. Renowned authors include Rita Joe (a poet who wrote about lost language and culture), Lorne Simon, and Shirley Bear.
Mohawk literature – From the St. Lawrence Valley. Beth Brant and Peter Blue Cloud are key figures.
Anishinaabe and Ojibway literature – From the Great Lakes region. George Copway, Richard Wagamese, and Drew Hayden Taylor have made significant contributions.
Cree literature – From the plains and forests. Tomson Highway, a novelist and playwright, is internationally famous.
Residential Schools and Trauma
A major theme in Indigenous Canadian literature is the Residential School system – a network of boarding schools run by churches and the government, where indigenous children were forcibly taken from their families, forbidden to speak their languages, and often subjected to physical and sexual abuse. This trauma appears in countless works of Canadian indigenous writing. It is a wound that has not healed.
Yet there is also resilience. Indigenous Canadian literature is not only about suffering; it is about survival, humour, love, and the reclamation of traditions. Writers like Tomson Highway infuse their work with Cree mythology and a deep sense of joy, even when addressing dark subjects.
The New Zealand Connection – Maori Literature
Although the module focuses on Canada and Australia, it also briefly discusses Indigenous literature from New Zealand. This is an essential part of the broader picture.
Maori literature has gained significant recognition in the last three decades. It brings to life the heritage of the Maori people – their oral traditions, their spiritual beliefs, and their resistance to Pakeha (European) domination. Importantly, Maori literature is not only published in English; it has been translated into several European languages, making it accessible to a global audience.
Oliver Haag, in his study of translations, shows how Maori literature has traveled across borders. This is a sign of its power and relevance. When a Maori novel is read in Germany or France, it participates in the global conversation about indigeneity, colonialism, and human rights.
Why Comparative Literature Matters
The Comparative Approach
The module argues that Comparative Literature is the ideal method for studying indigenous literature. Why? Because no single indigenous tradition exists in isolation. The Aboriginal Australian experience of dispossession echoes the First Nations Canadian experience, which echoes the Maori experience, which echoes the experience of indigenous peoples in Latin America and Africa and India.
By comparing these literatures, we can identify common patterns: the loss of land, the suppression of language, the theft of children, the struggle for recognition. But we can also see differences: in the specific stories, the local myths, the particular ways of resisting. Comparative Literature allows us to respect both the universal and the particular.
Indigeneity Is Comparative
The module makes a bold claim: “Indigeneity is also comparative.” This means that being indigenous – whether in Australia or Canada – is not just a fixed identity. It is a relationship to a history of colonialism. And that history, while unique in each place, has enough in common to allow for comparison. Therefore, a new approach in Comparative Literature is emerging – one that places Fourth World Literature at the center, rather than at the margins.
Connecting to India
Indian English literature also emerged from British colonialism, and it also includes writers who use English to express resistance and identity. However, there is a crucial difference: in India, the colonizers remained a minority. Indigenous cultures (like Hindi, Bengali, Tamil, etc.) continued to thrive alongside English. In Australia and Canada, the indigenous population was vastly outnumbered and nearly erased. This difference shapes the literature in profound ways.
Nevertheless, the newsletter suggests that Indian Bhasha literature (literature in Indian languages) shares certain qualities with Aboriginal Australian literature – particularly the struggle to preserve tradition while engaging with modernity. This is another rich area for comparative study.
The Future of English Literary Studies
Decolonizing the Syllabus
What does all of this mean for the future? The module argues that New Literature in English – whether we call it Postcolonial, World, or Fourth World – is transforming the discipline of English Literary Studies. University departments can no longer teach only Shakespeare and Milton. They must also teach Oodgeroo Noonuccal, Rita Joe, Tomson Highway, Kim Scott, and Alexis Wright.
This is not just about adding a few token writers to the syllabus. It is about changing the very framework of literary study. When you read Aboriginal Australian literature, you are not just learning about Australia. You are learning about land rights, about the politics of memory, about the long shadow of empire. You are learning that English literature is not one thing – it is many things, spoken in many accents, rooted in many soils.
The Role of the Reader
Finally, the module reminds us that readers have a role to play. When you choose to read Indigenous literature, you are not just consuming a text. You are witnessing a testimony. You are acknowledging that these voices exist. You are participating in the long, slow work of decolonization.
By reading carefully and respectfully, we can help dismantle those stereotypes. We can see the Aboriginal Australian not as a victim or a noble savage, but as a complex, modern human being – a poet, a novelist, a critic, a citizen of a Fourth World nation.
Conclusion: A Summary of the Module
Let us recall the key points of our study:
Non-British English Literature includes writing from former British colonies such as Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
This literature emerged from the encounter between European settlers and indigenous peoples. It includes three layers: European writing, settler writing about natives, and native writing itself – with the last being the most revolutionary.
Key terms such as Commonwealth Literature, Postcolonial Literature, New Literature, World Literature, and Fourth World Literature each have their own histories and limitations. Fourth World Literature specifically refers to the work of native people in lands taken by non-natives.
Aboriginal Australian literature includes writers like Oodgeroo Noonuccal, Jack Davis, and Alexis Wright. It offers a distinct worldview, rooted in the Dreamtime and shaped by the trauma of colonization.
Indigenous Canadian literature draws from Mi’kmaq, Mohawk, Anishinaabe, Ojibway, and Cree traditions. Writers like Rita Joe and Tomson Highway address themes of lost language, residential schools, and cultural survival.
Maori literature from New Zealand has gained international recognition and is translated into many European languages.
Comparative Literature is the ideal method for studying these traditions, as it reveals connections and differences across indigenous experiences.
The emergence of New Literature in English is transforming English Literary Studies, forcing us to rethink the canon and decolonize the syllabus.
Further Reading & References
O’Neill, Angeline and Albert Braz. “Introduction to About Indigenous Literatures.” CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture (2011).
“3.3. NEW ENGLISH LITERATURES ONLINE.” University of Bayreuth.
Durnin, Katherine. “Indigenous Literature and Comparability.” CLCWeb (2011).
McKenzie, A.D. “What is Commonwealth Literature?” IPS News (1997).
NYU Sydney. “World Literature in English II: Australia, New Zealand and the Asia-Pacific” (2014 syllabus).
Podemska-Abt, Teresa. “Can Indigenous contemporary literature of Australia sustain itself by becoming international?”
Rao, N. Sreenivasa and P. Sreenivasulu Reddy. “Fourth World Literature: An Introduction.” Online International Interdisciplinary Research Journal (2013).
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